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Diabetes or Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disorder in which elevated levels of blood sugar are observed. According to the World Health Organization, 422 million people suffer from diabetes in the world. Diabetes also causes 1.6 million deaths per year. It is one of the most common disorders in the world and requires constant care. What are the risks associated with high blood sugar levels? High blood sugar levels are a cause of concern as they can do significant damage. The normal blood sugar level for an adult after eating is less than 140mg/dl and on an empty stomach below 100mg/dl. When the blood sugar levels increase, the body is not able to cope with it. It can result in the following complications: ● Stroke ● Heart attack ● Loss of vision ● Kidney failure ● Increased urination ● Skin problems ● Gum disease ● Nerve disorders Types of Diabetes Diabetes can be classified into three types: Type 1 Diabetes: In this disorder, insulin is not produced in the body. The immune system destroys the cells which produce insulin in the pancreas. Type 2: Diabetes: In type 2 diabetes, the body produces insulin but the way in which that insulin is used gets affected. This ineffective use of insulin results in high blood sugar levels. Gestational Diabetes: It is also referred to as overt diabetes. It is a condition which develops in pregnant women as the body becomes less sensitive to insulin. This disorder does not affect all pregnant women. Type 1 Diabetes Type 1 diabetes is caused due to the destruction of beta cells in the pancreas. 5% of the total diabetes cases are of type 1 diabetes. Symptoms of Type 1 Diabetes ● Increased urination ● Thirst ● Blurred vision ● Tiredness and fatigue ● Mood Swings ● Sudden bedwetting in children ● Nausea ● Stomach problems Rapid breathing ● Confusion ● Loss of consciousness Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes Unfortunately, there is no freedom from type 1 diabetes as it does not have a cure. The treatment involves the administration of insulin in proper doses and ensuring constant extra care. Apart from the usual syringe, the following ways are being currently used to administer insulin ● Insulin Pen: It is a device in which disposable insulin cartridges and needles are attached. The pen allows the user to select the dose. It is a more convenient option than the syringe. ● Insulin Pump: An insulin pump is a device which is designed to mimic the function of the pancreas and releases the exact amount of dose that is programmed into it. A catheter is inserted under the layer of the skin and the pump is attached to it from the outside. The pumps vary model to model but they usually have multiple dosage options programmed by doctors. ● Jet Injection: A jet injection is a relatively newer technique used by patients who are afraid of using needles It is held while it touches the skin and it uses a jet of air to push the insulin through the skin. It can cause bruising on the skin and is not widely used. Type 2 Diabetes It is the most common type of diabetes accounting for more than 90% of cases. The major function of insulin is to ensure the movement of blood glucose to the cells but in type 2 diabetes that does not happen. This results in an increase in the blood sugar levels. Causes of Type 2 Diabetes The exact manifestation of the disease is not known. However, it is widely accepted that the following risk factors contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes: ● Genetic Factors: A family history is a key component in diabetes. If you have a family history than you are at a much higher risk of diabetes. ● Obesity: Obese individuals are at a much higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes. ● Unhealthy Diet: An unhealthy diet has been linked to type 2 diabetes. In most cases, a combination of the factors results in type 2 diabetes. Symptoms of Type 2 diabetes ● Increased Hunger ● Low energy level ● Tiredness ● Unexplained weight loss ● Skin rashes ● Blurred vision ● Slow healing of wounds ● Pain in feet ● Numbness ● Yeast infections Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes The treatment involves two aspects. Medication and lifestyle changes. Medication: ● Metformin: It is the most used drug in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Metformin reduces blood sugar level by decreasing the amount of blood sugar produced by the liver. It is available in various doses. ● Sulfonylureas: These are drugs which increase the production of insulin. Examples include glimepiride and chlorpropamide. ● GLP -1 Receptor Agonists: They act by slowing the digestion process which helps in improving blood sugar levels. Exenatide and liraglutide are the most used drugs. ● Thiazolidinediones: These drugs increase the sensitivity towards insulin produced by the body. Commonly used drugs are pioglitazone and rosiglitazone. ● Meglitinides: Their mechanism of this action is to stimulate the pancreas so that it releases more insulin. Examples include Chlorpropamide and Glyburide. ● Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors: The kidney reabsorbs glucose from the urine. These drugs ensure that the reabsorption does not take place and glucose is excreted through the urine. Canagliflozin and empagliflozin are commonly used. ● Insulin: In some extreme cases of type 2 diabetes, insulin has to be administered to the patient. Gestational Diabetes and Overt Diabetes If the onset of diabetes takes place within the first 24 weeks in a pregnancy, it is considered overt diabetes. After 24 weeks, it is known as gestational diabetes. This type requires constant monitoring so that the mother and foetus are not bothered. The gynaecologist usually checks for this disorder in routine check-ups. In most cases, this disorder resolves itself after the pregnancy. Medications are avoided unless necessary and the treatment focuses on making changes to the diet. Gestational Diabetes Diet The gestational diabetes diet or over diabetes diet focuses on eating healthy foods so that proper nutrition is maintained while managing diabetes. Foods to Eat ● Variety of vegetables. ● Fruits Credits: Pexels Caption: Fruits and vegetables should be a part of gestational diabetes diet. Protein-rich diet ● Eggs ● Healthy snacks such as popcorn Food Items to Avoid ● Fried food ● Alcoholic Beverages ● Sweets such as candy ● Baked food items ● Fast food ● Sugary Beverages The diet should focus on proper nutrition while avoiding sugary and fat-rich substances. Consulting the doctor about your diet is advised. Lifestyle Changes for Diabetes These lifestyle changes are common for all types of diabetes. Lifestyle changes are often considered the best medicine for diabetes. These lifestyle changes act as preventive measures for people who are not suffering from diabetes. ● Healthy Diet: Watching your food intake is the first step towards your freedom from diabetes-induced risks. No food items are prohibited but their quantities have to be strictly monitored. The focus should be on limiting foods which have high sugar and fat content. Eating items such as fruits and vegetables are beneficial. Maintaining a regular diet is also an important aspect. Credits: Pixabay Caption: Fried Food should be avoided by diabetic patients. ● Workout: Regular Exercise is very important and your everyday workout duration should be at least 30 minutes. Physical activity helps your body in managing high blood sugar levels. The workouts can range from morning walks to the gym. ● Stress Management: High stress levels can make your diabetes worse as stress can increase blood sugar levels. Popular methods of stress relief include meditation and yoga. ● Monitoring Blood Sugar Levels: Monitoring blood sugar levels is important to eliminate the risk factors associated with fluctuating blood sugar levels. Home test kits are available for testing blood sugar levels. ● Alcohol and Smoking: Both alcohol and smoking have been linked with increased blood sugar levels and should be avoided. Diagnosis of Diabetes The following diagnostic methods are used in diabetes ● Glycated Haemoglobin Test or A1C Test: This test indicates the average blood sugar level for three months. ● Fasting Blood Sugar Test: This test is performed after an overnight fast. A blood test is performed to measure the blood sugar level. ● Random Blood Sugar: The test is similar to a fasting blood sugar test. The only difference is that it is performed after taking meals. ● Initial Glucose Challenge Test: In this test, the patient is made to drink a sugary liquid and then the blood sugar level is tested. This test is used in gestational diabetes. Credits: Pixabay Caption: Diagnostic Tests measure the blood glucose level at different times. Prevalence of Diabetes in India Diabetes has been increasing rapidly in India. According to the report published by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in 2019, the prevalence in India is at 11.8%. The prevalence of diabetes in India is higher in urban areas as compared to rural areas. The prevalence of these diseases is so high that the government of India fixes retail prices of most drugs used for diabetes. The prices can be found in the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority Order. Takeaway Diabetes is a chronic condition which affects many people in the world. The most important factor is to ensure diabetes care so that it is not ignored. At the moment there is no cure but it can be managed. Lifestyle changes especially diet and exercise are an essential part of managing the disease and should be given priority.

Pregnancy is a beautiful biological process that leads to the formation of a baby, a new life. No wonder, they call it the “ordinary miracle”. During pregnancy, women observe changes in almost every part of their body, externally and internally. It also impacts the psychology of a woman in a big way. It is beautiful to watch a woman slowly transition into motherhood and make adjustments and accommodations for her growing baby. How Pregnancy Occurs Pregnancy occurs in multiple steps. After sexual intercourse, the sperm enters the mature egg in the fallopian tube. This process is known as fertilization but pregnancy is not established there. This fused and fertilized cell is known as a zygote. After fertilization, the zygote continues to divide and grow to form a mass of cells called the blastocyst. Once the blastocyst has formed, it gets attached to the walls of the uterus by the process known as implantation, and pregnancy is established. Credits: foter Caption: fertilization How Your Body Prepares For Pregnancy Every Month The menstrual cycle is a female body’s way of preparing for fertilization and pregnancy every month. At the start of the cycle, the uterine walls start to thicken and regenerate to prepare the uterus for implantation. The egg-containing Graafian follicle in the ovary continues to mature and is finally released during the time of ovulation. The released eggs are then picked up by the fimbriae and enter the fallopian tube. The next step can proceed in two ways: There happens to be a sperm present in the fallopian tube and fertilization successfully takes place. Then, the uterine walls continue to thicken for implantation and the uterus prepares for the foetus and the levels of progesterone increases. Fertilization does not occur and the uterine wall starts shedding and is released out in the form of menstrual discharge. The body then enters the first phase again and the cycle continues. Credits: unsplash Caption: Foetus formation Pregnancy Cycle The time-period of pregnancy, that is between the last menstrual period and labour, is around 40 weeks. The pregnancy cycle is divided into three stages termed as trimesters: First trimester Duration: Week 1- 12 Here the mother’s body will show early signs and symptoms of pregnancy after ovulation has ceased and your period has been missed. During the start of the trimester, the foetus’ heart, nervous system, arm and leg buds begin to develop. By the end of this trimester, nerves and muscles begin to function, sex organs develop, eye and eyelids are formed and the head grows considerably. Second trimester Duration: Week 13-28 In this trimester, more symptoms start to show. The “baby bump” will start to develop and show. Pregnant women will start experiencing vomiting and morning sickness. At the start of the trimester, the skin begins to form, the musculoskeletal system continues to form and the baby’s intestinal tract develops. The baby is now about 4 inches long and weighs almost 2.5 – 3 ounces. By the end of the trimester, the bone marrow begins to make blood cells, tastes buds, footprints and fingerprints are formed, hair and lungs begin to grow. Sex organs continue to develop and the baby is now about 12 inches long. Credits: unsplash Caption: Baby bump Third trimester (final stage of pregnancy) Duration: Week 29-40 At the start of the trimester, bones are fully formed but are not strong enough. The mother will experience movement and a lot of kicking. The eyelids begin to move and the body begins to store minerals. The baby is now around 12 inches and weighs about 1.8 KGs. By week 37, the baby is fully formed and functional. The head begins to position itself for delivery. Labor and Delivery It is the process of passing the baby out of the uterus, through the vagina. It is then followed by the passage of the placenta. The onset of labour is marked when a woman starts to experience strong contractions. Contractions are the body’s way to prepare the uterine muscles for delivery. Stages of labour First stage: This stage lasts until the cervix has been fully dilated to accommodate the passage of the foetus. It becomes thinner and starts to stretch as the baby’s head continues to approach the opening. It is considered the longest and the most painful stage and lasts upto 4-8 hours. Second stage : After the cervix is fully dilated, the head starts to descend. This is known as the ” pushing phase” as the mother has to apply pressure to push her baby out of her uterus. It lasts upto 20 minutes before the baby is delivered. Then the umbilical cord gets cut and the baby is free. Third stage: After the baby has been delivered, the placenta gets unattached to the uterus and eventually falls off and is passed through the vagina. To avoid complications the placenta should ideally fall off on it’s own without assistance. Credit: unsplash Caption: Vaginal Birth Types of birth delivery Natural Birth or Vaginal Birth It is the delivery of the baby through the vagina through the process of labour mentioned above. Caesarean Section Also known as the C-section, is the method of delivering a child through surgery. It is done by making a small incision on the mother’s stomach and uterus and the baby is delivered through cuts. A C-section is usually opted by mothers who cannot physically handle the stress and pain of vaginal birth for whatever reason. Sometimes C-sections are the only option, like when the baby’s head is not in position for vaginal birth or the baby is wrapped around the umbilical cord or any other complications. Credits: unsplash Caption: C-section Early Signs and Symptoms Of Pregnancy Fatigue Tender and swollen breast Cramping Vomiting Dizziness Constipation Raised basal body temperature Slight bleeding due to implantation Frequent urination However, these symptoms are very similar to premenstrual symptoms. The only way to be sure is to take a pregnancy test after your period has been missed. Credits: foter Caption: Home pregnancy test Pregnancy Tests There are various tests to determine if one is pregnant or not: Home pregnancy test This test is used to detect the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), that is found in the body only during pregnancy. This hormone is detected by testing its levels in the urine by the use of a chemical stick. The test is usually used on the first day of your missed period. Although these tests are quite accurate when taken correctly, sometimes there could be an error at the earlier stages when the hormone is not yet produced. Medical urine test This test is very similar to the home pregnancy test. The only advantage is that there will be a doctor at every step assisting you to reduce any chances of error in the test. Blood test The test is the most effective as it checks for the hGC hormone directly from your blood. Blood is drawn from the patient and is then taken to the laboratory for analysis. There are two types of tests: Qualitative blood tests will only detect the presence of hCG in your blood and confirm if you are pregnant or not. Quantitative blood tests will check the level and amount of hCG in your blood to determine how long the woman has been pregnant. Credits: pexel Caption: pregnancy yoga Pregnancy Care It is very important to look after your health and lifestyle during your pregnancy to ensure your baby is safe and healthy. Nutritional needs – Whatever you eat is the main source of nutrient for your baby. Hence, it is important to maintain a healthy diet consisting of calcium, iron, vitamins, folic acid etc. Prenatal vitamin supplements can also be taken if recommended by doctors. Exercise – Exercising improves your health which, in turn, improves your baby’s health. It is also good to maintain a healthy weight during pregnancy. Lastly, exercise helps ease the mother’s back pains and aches and has also proven to make delivery less painful. Thus, various forms of exercise like walking, yoga, swimming and aerobics is advisable during pregnancy. Regular check ups- It is important to do your routine check ups, tests and ultrasound scans as advised by your doctor. This step is very crucial to ensure your baby is healthy. Moreover, if any complication is found, it is most treatable at earlier stages. Credits: unsplash Caption: Artificial insemination Fertility Treatment Options Sometimes, even after having unprotected sex multiple times, couples either cannot conceive a child or undergo several miscarriages. This is either because the male or the female or both are infertile. Infertility in females is usually due to problems with ovulation, hormonal changes with age, damaged fallopian tube or any vital reproductive organ. Infertility in males is due to sperm abnormalities, low sperm count or motility. Luckily science has come up with multiple solutions and alternatives to problems linked with fertility: Fertility drugs are taken by women whose body does not ovulate normally, on a monthly basis. These drugs are designed to treat problems that prevent ovulation, like decreasing insulin resistance and reducing hormones like prolactin. Other drugs simply just trigger or stimulate the activities of the ovary. For example, gonadotropin hormones, letrozole and clomid. High-tech assisted reproductive technology (ART) In vitro fertilization (IVF) – In this method, the mature egg from the Graafian follicle is extracted from the ovary, just prior to ovulation, and the sperm is collected from the male semen. They are then artificially fertilized in the laboratory and then transferred into the uterus for implantation. The upside to IVF is that it can help prevent genetic problems. The only downside to this method is that it is time consuming and expensive. Moreover, it often results in multiple pregnancies, meaning formation of more than one uterus. Intrauterine insemination (IUI) – It is a process in which the male sperm is artificially introduced into the female’s uterus without any sexual contact. In IUI, the sperm is isolated from the seminal fluid to ensure maximum effectiveness. It is then inserted into the uterus through a catheter. It is the easiest and the most convenient method for males whose sperms are less fertile and motile or for females with thick cervical mucus. This method is extremely successful as the female’s menstrual cycle is thoroughly studied and the sperm is introduced inside the uterus during ovulation, when the chances of fertilization is the highest. Surrogacy- In this process, a woman (surrogate) carries another woman’s baby. This is done by using the mother’s eggs and the father’s sperm, fertilizing and inserting it into the uterus of the surrogate through the IVF method. It is best for women who can’t carry a baby because of infertility or are suffering from a disease that could transfer to the foetus. Credits: foter Caption: sex determination Sex Determination Of The Baby The gender of the baby is strictly determined by the male gamete, sperm cells. The human body consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of 23 pairs, 22 are autosomal chromosomes, meaning they translate bodily features and the last pair remaining is known as the sex chromosome which translates the gender of the embryo. Sex chromosomes in humans are of two types: XX and XY Females have the XX pair and males have the XY pair. Males have 44 + XY chromosomes and since their reproductive cells are haploid, every sperm can only have 23 chromosomes. This means that sperms can either have 22+X or 22+Y. Thus, depending on the sperm that fuses it egg, the sex of the baby is determined. If the egg fuses with the 22+X sperm, the baby will be a girl and with 22+ Y it will be a boy.

The pathological conditions which affect the respiratory system of the body are known as respiratory diseases. They are also called lung diseases. The main function of the respiratory system is to ensure that the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. Respiratory diseases are among the most common diseases in the world and can range from mild disorders to life-threatening conditions. The most prevalent respiratory diseases are: Asthma Asthma is a condition in which the airway through which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the form of breathing is inflamed. This inflammation results in obstruction which causes breathing difficulties. The meaning of the word asthma is Greek is laboured breathing and it is one of the oldest diseases which was 1st identified over 3000 years ago. The World Health Organization estimated that 300 million people worldwide are suffering from asthma today. Causes of Asthma There is much debate over the exact cause of asthma. However, it is widely accepted that the symptoms of asthma are caused by the following conditions: Airway Hyperresponsiveness: When the tendency of the airway to react to different stimuli is increased, its called airway hyperresponsiveness. Bronchoconstriction: It is defined as the narrowing of the airway resulting in obstruction of airflow. Symptoms of Asthma Breathing difficulty. Shortness of breath. Tiredness and fatigue. Whistling or wheezing sound while breathing. Coughing. Possible Triggers of Asthma Environmental Pollutants: Cigarette smoke and traffic fumes are one of the biggest triggers of asthma. Allergens: There are some allergens which when inhaled while breathing can trigger asthma. Examples include dust mites, pollens, and mould. Chemicals: The manufacturing process of certain chemicals such as paints, aluminium, and hair sprays can release substances which trigger asthma. Food Items: Asthma being triggered by food items is a rare condition. However, it has still been observed. Examples of food which can trigger asthma are seafood, nuts, and food colouring agents. Miscellaneous triggers: A few other triggers are cold air, hyperventilation, cotton and dust. Asthma Attack An asthma attack is defined as a condition in which a sudden onset of symptoms of asthma is observed. In this condition, the lining of the airways becomes inflamed and there is an increase in mucous production. In some cases, the muscles around the airway also tighten. This results in extreme difficulty in breathing and can be fatal. Treatment of Asthma The treatment of asthma is used in two forms. One is to treat asthma on an everyday basis and the other is for rapidly treating an asthma attack. Long Term Corticosteroids: Corticosteroids are anti-inflammatory drugs which are used to decrease the inflammation in the airways. They are available in inhaled as well as oral forms. In the case of long-term asthma, inhaled corticosteroids are preferred. Common examples are fluticasone and beclomethasone. Leukotriene Modifiers: These drugs act by blocking the action of leukotrienes and are effective in relieving the symptoms of asthma. Examples include zafirlukast and montelukast. Beta Agonists: These are also called beta-adrenergic agonists and act by relaxing the muscles of the airways which results in widening of the airway. They make breathing easier. Salmeterol and Formoterol are widely used, beta-agonists. Bronchodilators: Bronchodilators are drugs which relax the muscles in the airway as well as the lungs and help in breathing. Theophylline is one of the most used bronchodilators to treat asthma. Credits: Pixabay Caption: Many kinds of medication are available to treat asthma. Immediate Treatment of Asthma Immediate treatment which is also known as a rescue treatment is used in case of asthma attacks. Short Term Beta Agonists: They are similar to beta-agonists but their onset of activation is quite fast. They act within minutes of administration. The most used short term beta-agonists are albuterol and levalbuterol. Oral and Intravenous Corticosteroids: These agents decrease the inflammation of the airway rapidly. However, they can produce serious side effects if they are prescribed for long term treatment. They should only be used for immediate treatment. Prednisolone and methylprednisolone are the choice of drugs used. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease COPD is a group of lung diseases which are progressive. These disorders obstruct the airflow from the lungs. It is the 4th highest cause of death in the world. There are two major types of COPD: Emphysema: It is a condition in which the air sacs in the lungs are damaged. Over time, this damage increases. Chronic Bronchitis: Long term inflammation along with the narrowing of the bronchial tubes results in mucus build-up. This mucus causes difficulty in breathing. Most individuals with COPD suffer from both these conditions. Causes of COPD Tobacco smoking Credits: Pixabay Caption: Tobacco smoking is one of the primary causes of COPD. Exposure to chemicals Genetic factors Fumes produced due to burning. Stages of COPD The stages of COPD are classified based on the Gold Staging system by the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. It uses a pulmonary function test to measure the forced expiratory volume in one second or FEV1 for classification. According to GOLD, COPD has the following stages Stage 1: Mild COPD with FEV1 greater than 80%. Stage 2: Moderate COPD with FEV1 between 50% and 80%. Stage 3: Severe COPD characterized by severe emphysema with FEV1 between 30% and 50%. Stage 4: End-stage COPD with less than 30% FEV1. It can also be caused by low blood oxygen level. Treatment of COPD COPD is a progressive disease which means that it gets worse over time. It does not have a cure. However, treatment is necessary to ensure that progress is slow. One major aspect of the treatment is to avoid stimulants such as tobacco smoke and chemical fumes to ensure that they do not make the disease worse. The other treatments include: Bronchodilators: Examples include albuterol and albuterol sulfate. Oxygen Therapy: Oxygen therapy refers to a technique which increases blood oxygen level. In some cases of COPD, the blood oxygen level becomes very low and requires this. Pneumonia Pneumonia is a disease which is characterized by an infection in the lungs. The infection results in filling the air sacs present in the lung with a fluid. This causes breathing difficulties. The cycle of Pneumonia usually lasts for 3 weeks in healthy individuals. However, in Individuals with other underlying conditions or weak immunity, it can last for a longer period. Types, Causes and Treatment of Pneumonia The type and treatment of pneumonia depend on its cause. Bacterial Pneumonia: This type of pneumonia is caused by bacterial infections. Mycoplasma Pneumonia is the most common bacteria which causes pneumonia. The treatment involves Antibiotics for bacterial infection and Antipyretics in case of fever. Viral Pneumonia: Viral Pneumonia is caused by different types of viruses. These include flu viruses, cold viruses and RSV viruses. In this condition, medication is only given for the fever. Rest is an essential part of the treatment of pneumonia. Symptoms of Pneumonia Fever Sweating Chills Loss of appetite. Vomiting and Nausea Fatigue Cough with the presence of phlegm Breathing difficulty. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis or TB is a disease which is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. It is an infection which affects the lungs. According to the World Health Organization, 1.5 million people in the world died due to TB IN 2018. It is in the top 10 causes of death worldwide. Tuberculosis is a communicable disease. When an infected person coughs, talks or sneezes, the droplets containing the bacteria can be released into the air. If these droplets are inhaled by another individual, then they can get TB. Credits: Pixabay Caption: TB is a communicable disease and the transmission can be reduced if the sufferer wears a face mask. Types of Tuberculosis Latent TB: In this condition, the patient has acquired that bacteria that causes tuberculosis, but the immune system ensures that it does not spread. This means that no symptoms are observed. Treatment is only required in case of people who are at a high risk of activating it due to their compromised immune system or underlying conditions. Active TB: Active TB that the infection is multiplying in the body. Active TB is communicable and requires immediate treatment. Symptoms of Tuberculosis Latent TB does not have any symptoms. The following can be symptoms of active TB. Cough lasting for more than 3 weeks. Coughing up blood. Sweats Fever Loss of Appetite Chest Pain Treatment of Tuberculosis The treatment of TB is long. The average duration is 6-9 months. Proper treatment is necessary and missed doses can cause significant damage. There are two types of medications used to treat TB: First-Line Agents: These are the agents which have high efficacy and low toxicity. Examples include isoniazid and ethambutol. Second Line Agents: These are the drugs which have toxicity. These are only used in severe cases where first-line agents do not work. Commonly used second-line agents are cycloserine and ethionamide. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome It is a condition in which there is a build-up of fluid in the air sacs due to leakage from the blood vessels. This syndrome is serious and is fatal in most cases. It is caused by the presence of an underlying condition. The following conditions can cause acute respiratory distress syndrome: COVID 19 Sepsis Inhalation of chemical fumes External Injuries The treatment focuses on the use of ventilators to help in breathing while the underlying cause is treated. Diagnosis of Respiratory Diseases Respiratory diseases have different origins and require many types of investigations. The common diagnostics tests which are used in diagnosing respiratory diseases are: Detailed Medical History. Pulmonary Function Tests Chest X-ray Credits: Pixabay Caption: A chest X-ray Bronchoscopy Thoracoscopy Serological Tests Histological Tests Lung Capacity and Airway Resistance CT Scan Ultrasonography Takeaway Respiratory disorders are of various types and can turn into serious conditions. If you notice any symptoms of respiratory disorders, then you should seek immediate medical help. There are many different forms of treatment available for respiratory disorders. Making lifestyle changes such as quitting smoking can be very beneficial and should be explored.

Sexually transmitted disease (STD) or infection (STI) is a condition where bacteria, virus or parasites are transferred from one person to another. This transmission is usually due to sexual contact or intercourse through the semen or vaginal fluids but is also often spread by blood through sharing of needles, blood transfusion etc and breastfeeding. Statistics A lot of people wrongly assume that just because they are in perfect health condition they cannot acquire STIs. In reality, more than 1 million healthy people get infected every day worldwide, according to the WHO. A majority of people do not have symptoms that can be recognized and become carriers, adding to the spread. Another major problem is that in developing countries like India, testing kits for STIs are largely unavailable or very expensive. How to Prevent STIs One of the most common ways to transmit STIs is unprotected sex. Therefore, it is advisable to use contraceptive barriers like condoms. It is also important to share your sexual history with your partners to ensure no possibility of transmission. One must possess a comprehensive sexual education to be able to recognise symptoms and get the necessary treatment. To increase awareness so that uneducated people become aware. Avoid sharing towels, needles and undergarments. Vaccines are available for certain diseases like Hepatitis B and are recommended. Lastly,  it is very important to regularly get tested, despite having no symptoms as most of these diseases do not show any complications in the beginning. Common Symptoms of STIs There are various types of sexual diseases, and some common alarming symptoms one must look out for. They are: Discomfort and pain during urination or sexual intercourse. Inflammation, rashes or bumps around genitals. Unusual vaginal or penile discharge. Swollen testicles Itchiness around the genitals. Types of Sexually Transmitted Disease and Infections Chlamydia: It is the most common STD in the world and tends to occur simultaneously with gonorrhoea. The most common type is Chlamydia trachomotuis. The mechanism of transmission from one person to another is through sexual intercourse, childbirth and direct contact, which is a very uncommon mode of transmission for STDs. However, Chlamydia can only live outside the body for a few seconds, so direct contact is restricted to actions like scratching the infected genital area and then touching your own eyes which usually causes conjunctivitis and eye infections. Once the chlamydia trachomotuis bacteria gets transmitted and makes its way into the male and female genitals, it multiplies and spreads rapidly. This bacteria is intercellular in nature and predominantly lives within the epithelial cells lining. The symptoms occur when the white blood cells recognize the bacteria inside these specific cells in the lining as a foreign invader. Due to this, it leads to cell death and hence the urinary and genital tract gets destroyed. The pain and burning sensation felt especially during urination or sexual intercourse is associated with the destruction of epithelial lining by WBCs. The condition is called ‘cervicitis’ when the infection spreads to the cervix, ‘dysuria’ when infected in the urinary tract and ‘urethritis’ when the infection has spread to the urethra in males. Sometimes, the infection can also spread into the abdominal cavity and leads to pelvic inflammatory disease. The most common symptom in males is when the destroyed epithelial cells, white blood cells and dead bacteria escape through the penis in the form of pus, especially during ejaculation and urination. Chlamydia can also enter the bloodstream from the genitals and spread to other areas like the conjunctiva of the eyes and joints leading to dysarthiritis. Chlamydia can be diagnosed by testing for the bacteria in swab samples, taken from the urinary or genital tract. If a person is tested positive, treatment can be given to a patient by administering antibiotics that are best suited. Gonorrhoea is the second most common infection and has the same mode of mechanism and targeted cells. The only difference is that it is caused by a bacteria known as Neisseria gonorrhoea. Credits: foter Caption: Epithelial cells getting infected due to chlamydia Syphilis – It is a sexual disease in which same sex intercourse, especially in males, are at a higher risk. It is caused due to a bacteria called treponema pallidum. The interesting thing about syphilis is that it cannot survive outside the human body at all. In other words, if every single person was cured from syphilis, it would be eradicated. However, treatment of syphilis is very tricky as it takes about three weeks for a person to show symptoms after getting infected. The stage where symptoms appear, mainly at the site of contact, is known as primary syphilis. The most evident symptom of early syphilis is the formation of lesions at the tip or around the penis or cervix, and is called chancre. The unique thing about chancre is that it is completely painless. Another symptom is the painful enlargement of the inguinal lymph nodes. After 9 weeks, the condition progresses to secondary syphilis. Here, the bacteria reaches the bloodstream and starts to cause symptoms that are more related to bodily functions rather than sexual. A significant symptom is fever. The fever is caused when the white blood cells in the blood recognize the foreign invading bacteria and releases cytokines, a chemical substance that sends signals to the brain to increase the body temperature, resulting in a fever. During the secondary phase, those “painless lesions” are transformed into painful large warts around the penis and cervix. Lastly, the most significant symptom of secondary syphilis is the development of a skin rash called maculopapular rash that occurs all over the body. These rashes are unique as they also appear on your palms and soles. Credit : foter  Caption: Skin rash on the feet due to syphilis The scary thing about syphilis is that 2 years after infection, the disease stops showing symptoms in the latent phase. To add to the problem, syphilis is most contagious at this stage. The last stage is known as the tertiary stage. Here,the infection is not contagious at all but the patient will start showing symptoms. As the bacteria continues to fight the white blood cells, bumps appear on the surface of the infected areas like the liver, femur and skin. It also greatly infects and causes complications in the spinal cord and cardiovascular system, and based on that, is termed as neurosyphilis and cardiosyphilis respectively. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) – The unique thing about the HPV is that there are hundreds of strains or subtypes. So if someone were to get cured from one particular strain, it is very possible for the person to get reinfected with another strain in their lifetime. . These groups of viruses specifically infect the human epithelial cells. Since epithelial cells are found almost in all parts of the body like the hands, face, feet, respiratory tract, reproductive tract, digestive tract, lining of blood vessels etc, it is very harmful to the human body. The interaction of the virus with these cells can cause benign and malignant tumors known as papillomas and carcinomas respectively. Basal cells are cells in the epithelium that are responsible for replenishing and multiplying new cells in the stratified (layered) epithelium. Typically, basal cells are well protected as they are at the base of the stratified epithelium. The only way the HPV can enter these cells is when there is a cut or injury in the epithelium. Doing so, they usually get incorporated into the basal cell’s DNA and cause unregulated growth of the epithelial cells. This uncontrolled replication of cells is what causes warts and lesions called papillomas. When this similar mechanism takes place in squamous epithelium cells, it forms malignant tumors or carcinomas. Credits: foter Caption: infected squamous cells due to HPV HPV infection is caused by coming in direct contact with infected epithelial cells. Some activities that increase the risks of contact is having an infected partner or delivering a baby through the infected canal. A majority of the time, an HPV does not show symptoms but when it does, it will depend on the substrain. They may be: In the cells of hand, feet and face, benign warts are formed. Infections in the respiratory epithelial cells usually form warts or bumps which cause a change in a person’s voice and pitch. Genital and anal Infections involve numerous warts formation. Although types are usually painless, they can cause burns, itchiness and bleeding. Some substrain remain strictly as warts but some progress into cancers in the genital and anal areas. Diagnosis: HPV can be tested by visual examination for warts on the skin and face. For mucosal Infections in the respiratory membrane, an endoscopy is required. This is basically the method of inserting a tube connected to a camera inside your body to detect any abnormal growth. Treatment : Warts and lesions can be removed when treated with salicylic acid products, surgery or laser. Sometimes, when a person is reinfected, immune modifiers can be given to help the body fight off the infection on its own. HIV/AIDS – It is a condition in which the HIV virus causes complications in the immune system and manipulates it to target and infect the immune cells in the body until it fails. As a result, the patient will be prone to infection and fall severely ill. When the virus enters the body it tries to gain entry into immune cells like macrophages, T helper cells and dendritic cells. The virus attaches itself to the same binding site that help immune cells communicate with the immune system. Once this happens, the virus gains entry into the cells and replicates into a  double stranded DNA by reverse transcriptase. This “Proviral” DNA is now ready to combine with the host’s DNA by entering the nucleus of the CD4 or immune cell. Credits: foter  Caption: HIV infected T cells Ironically, this means that every time there is an infection in the body and the CD4 cells get activated, it’s nucleus starts transcribing and translating proteins that are responsible for the immune response that helps fight off the infection. Treatment : There has been no cure found to this day. However, medications are available to slow down the progression of the infection, transmission and reduce symptoms, enabling the patient to live a healthy and longer life. Such drugs are known as the antiretroviral therapy (ART). The patient is also advised to eat healthy food for proper nourishment, avoid raw meat to prevent foodborne diseases or generally try to avoid any risk of infection. Hepatitis B: It is the most common cause of liver disease worldwide. This is a blood borne illness that spreads through sexual contact, blood transfusion or at birth from mother to child. 90% of adults who have Hepatitis B recover from the virus on their own in the first 3-6 months. However, once Hepatitis B reaches its chronic stage, the body will not be able to fight off the virus. The liver is an important organ of the body. In fact, without the liver, the body wouldn’t last for more than 48 hours. The liver stores vitamins, minerals, controls cholesterol levels and produces bile to help digests the food When the liver gets inflamed due to the virus, all these functions are compromised. However, during the acute phase the liver still has the ability to regenerate upto 80% but at chronic phase it could lead to increased inflammation, cirrhosis and progresses into liver cancer which will eventually cause liver fail, followed by death. Treatment: Hepatitis B can be prevented by taking effective vaccines. Otherwise, chronic Hepatitis B cannot be cured. Like HIV, drugs can only be given to suppress it’s activity, prolong life and prevent further liver damage. Credits: foter Caption: Vaccine for Hepatitis B

Positivity is defined as the practice of being positive or dawning a positive attitude. All of us in life have been told by someone to be positive. Some of us may have even felt the effects of keeping a positive outlook in life. But, what does positivity really mean and how does one hold on to it and draw powers from it? Does it mean happiness? No! Positivity is often confused with being happy in all scenarios. Positivity does lead to happiness, but there’s a lot more to it. It means looking at all situations in your life positively and concentrating on your ability to deal with tough situations, rather than letting them bring you down. Fixating on the effects of your problem can make it even harder for you to deal with it. A negative outlook on life results in negative emotions. These emotions impair your ability to think, hamper your productivity, and can even have a very harmful effects on your health. Negativity has been widely linked to stress, impaired mental health, and various other diseases. Benefits of Positivity Positive thinking has been linked to various benefits. We shall start with the health benefits: Stress Relief Stress has become a huge part of our lives in the modern world. Whether it is work-related or related to your personal life, every individual suffers from stress at some point in their lives. Studies show that positive thinking helps individuals relieve stress. Depression Positive thinking leads to acceptance of the problem, giving you the ability to work on the solution. Failure to do so, often spirals one into depression. Improved Immune System The immune system of the human body responds to positive thinking. The recovery time for common diseases is faster in patients who very learn to smile through the ailment without becoming cynical. Hypertension Hypertension is the condition of suffering from high blood pressure. It is a disease in which lifestyle changes are part of the treatment. One of those changes can be positive thinking. A study reports that among people that have a family history of hypertension, the ones who exercise positivity are far less likely to develop the condition than people with a negative outlook. Longevity Studies link positive thinking to increased life spans. And by quite a margin! Some studies say that the average life span of a positive thinker is 10 years more than a negative thinker. This is believed to be true because of the overall physical and mental health benefits of Positive thinking. Mental Health The mental health of a human being is one of the most important factors in their life. Impaired mental health can result in wrong decision making, rash actions, and impaired cognitive functioning. Positive thinking improves the mental health of a person by allowing them to be in a better state of mind. Improved Pain Tolerance It’s easy for anyone who is suffering from chronic pain to constantly focus on their pain. This can actually make the pain worse. Positivity can direct your focus towards something better, and help cope with the pain, and its symptoms. Additional Benefits of Positive Thinking Positivity has a significant number of direct health benefits but there are other plus points of being positive as well. Better Decision-Making Ability Positivity allows an individual to analyse the situation in depth before making a decision. A negative outlook leads to rash, regrettable decisions. Personal Growth A positive outlook leads to being energetic, making good decisions and trying new things. These practices result in the individual gaining worthwhile experiences, gaining new skills and inculcating good habits. Positive thinking is considered a crucial aspect of leadership skills Better Grasping Power Positivity is linked to faster and more effective learning. A positive attitude creates interest and willingness to learn new things. Increased Productivity Studies show that people with positive attitudes accomplish more than the ones with negative approaches. Feel Good Factor and Increased Self-esteem Positive thinking leads to a feel-good factor and better self-esteem. Both of these factors are very important in the pursuit of a happy life. Credits: Pexels Caption: Embracing positivity is a choice. A choice which leads to happiness. But Why Don’t We Embrace Positivity? Why are We Negative? Positivity has amazing benefits, yet many individuals do not think positively. This happens because positivity is not developed overnight. It is difficult to develop a positive attitude and that’s why a host of people are negative. Negativity arises from negative situations. Situations such as work pressure, job losses, fighting with family members and so on. These situations lead to negative emotions like anger, unhappiness, and fear. These situations are bad but the easiest way to deal with them is by giving our best. We as individuals cannot be at our best if we focus on the negative factors and not on how to fix the problem. Our ability to deal with problems is impaired when we embrace negativity instead of positivity. People do not embrace positivity because they are stuck in their ways. It may be difficult to stay away from the negative and channelize positivity, but it is not impossible. How to Embrace Positivity? The following steps can be taken to develop positive thinking: Change in Perspective A perspective is very important when it comes to feelings and making decisions. A simple change in perspective can go a long way. There are generally more than one starting points when it comes to approaching a problem. Looking at the same issue the same way over an over again, could led to paralysis analysis, which leads to frustration, which fuels negativity. Identify and Accept Problem Identifying and accepting a problem is the first step towards attaining a positive attitude. When we do not accept problems, we focus on all its negative effects and end up wasting mental and physical energy. Healthy lifestyle A healthy lifestyle which includes exercise and balance diet has a wonderful effect on a person’s mood. The mind body connection is not to be taken lightly. Sometimes, a major source of our negativity simply ends up being a vitamin deficiency. Take the examples of B12 and D3 deficiencies. They are common, and could lead to fatigue and impaired cognitive functioning. This, ultimately leads to negativity. Credits: Pexels Caption: A proper workout is an essential part of a healthy lifestyle. Self-motivation We live in a world where we are surrounded by critics. While criticism can be constructive, in most cases it is not. Criticism hits even harder when its self-criticism. So, appreciate yourself and don’t be too unnecessarily hard on yourself all the time. As they say, the way you perceive the outside world, is often a mirror image of what’s going on inside your head. Be Open to Change If you identify a problem and the solution requires changing something at a fundamental level, do not be afraid of it. Change can lead to wonderful things. Embracing positivity often required making bold, courageous moves. Positive Reading There are various books which give detailed techniques and theories as to how you can embrace positivity. Some positive thinking books are: The Alchemist by Paulo Coehlo. Think and Grow Rich by Napoleon Hill The Power of Now by Eckhart Tolle The Secret by Rhonda Byrne Don’t Sweat the Small Stuff by Richard Carlson These are just a few examples of books on positivity. There is a wide range of such books available on positivity available out there. Moreover, if you like reading, getting lost in the world created by an author, even if it’s fictitious, is great way of escaping the clutches of negativity. Credits: Pexels Caption: The more positive books you read, the more strategies you can apply to be positive. Meditation Meditation has allowed a lot of people to embrace positivity. It has various other health benefits as well. It is widely practised in the world. Credits: Pexels Caption: Meditation boosts positivity. Avoiding Negativity Negative emotions arise from negativity and there’s no shortage of that. The news today largely focusses on negative things. It’s always critiquing government policies, the police, and large organisations. This leads to one only being exposed to negativity. There is a vast amount of positive news in India. Not just news, a balance must be found between positive and negative activities around us. This applies to information as well. Positive Use of Social Media Social media has become an essential part of our daily lives, but it too is capable of having a negative impact. Some people spread negativity. Additionally, it’s easy to get fixated on other people’s success rather than focusing on your own. Avoid this! Choosing the Right People Following people that reflect a positive thinking status. These people can have a massive positive effect on you and motivate to achieve your goals. Conclusion Positivity is a simple concept with massive benefits. The benefits range from health to aspects of daily life. The journey to becoming a positive person is not easy but it is not impossible either. Start with small steps, see the results yourself and then go forward. There are many positive thinking books and blogs available to help you gain a positive attitude. Positivity should be embraced.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a relatively common health problem, affecting about 3% to 10% of women around the world [1]. PCOS is characterized by an imbalance in reproductive hormones (elevated androgen levels) [2]. PCOS, most commonly, presents with irregular periods and is one of the main causes of infertility [3]. Symptoms: Irregular menstrual cycle: At least 70% of women with PCOS experience oligomenorrhea (nine periods or lesser per year) or amenorrhea (three or four consecutive months with no period) [4]. Infertility due to prolonged anovulation (no ovulation) [4]. The appearance of cysts on one or both ovaries [3]. Excessive facial hair, also called hirsutism. Excessive acne on face, chest and upper back [4]. Weight gain or difficulty losing weight [5]. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to development of PCOS. Hormonal disturbances combined with other factors, including obesity, ovarian dysfunction and hypothalamic pituitary abnormalities contribute to the aetiology of PCOS [4]. Two of the most well-known causes are listed below: Hyperandrogenism: Elevated levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and gonadotropin–releasing hormone (GnRH) result in stimulation of the ovarian thecal cells which, in turn, produces more androgen [2]. Insulin resistance: Insulin stimulates human thecal cells to synthesise testosterone by human thecal cells, which in turn leads to hyperandrogenism. Hyperinsulemia is another factor that influences PCOS [6]. Obesity worsens insulin resistance, thereby increasing hyperinsulinemia. Diagnosis: Patients with PCOS are sometimes asymptomatic or they may present with multiple gynaecologic, dermatologic, or sometimes metabolic manifestations. They most commonly come with complaints of oligomenorrhea (infrequent menstrual periods), amenorrhea (no menstrual periods), or infertility [7]. Diagnosis can be accomplished by a detailed history and physical examination and basic laboratory testing, mostly without the need for ultrasonography. The Endocrine Society advises clinicians to diagnose PCOS using the 2003 Rotterdam criteria [7]. Treatment: There is no cure available to PCOS. Symptomatic treatment along with life-style changes is the best course of treatment. Long-term management of PCOS: The first line of treatment for PCOS is lifestyle changes, weight loss, diet and exercise. This increases insulin sensitivity. Oral contraceptives have been the go-to for treatment of PCOS. They provide relief through suppressing pituitary LH secretion, suppressing ovarian androgen secretion, increasing circulating SHBG levels. Risk factors with oral contraceptives need to be weighed before treatment plan is established. Some studies have progestin containing IUD’s to be of value in treatment. In morbidly obese women, bariatric surgery is recommended for patients with BMI higher than 40. Currently, studies are being conducted to prove efficacy of pharmacological treatment of obesity as a long-term benefit to managing PCOS [8]. Treatment of anovulatory infertility: One of the recently popular first-line of therapy for ovulation induction is letrozole (aromatase inhibitors). Traditionally, clomiphene citrate (CC) has been used to treat anovulatory women.  The proposed benefits of letrozole include a shorter half-life than clomiphene, more favourable effects on the endometrium, potentially higher implantation rates, and lower multiple pregnancy rates due to mono-follicular ovulation. Generally, clomiphene is started at 50 mg per day for 5 days and increased by 50 mg per day in following cycles, increased up to a maximum daily dose of 150 mg/d, if the patient doesn’t ovulate. Metformin, is often, times used as an adjuvant to clomiphene treatment.  Gonadotrophins are used for ovulation induction in women with no success using clomiphene. As second-line treatments, in-vitro fertilization (IVF) and ovarian surgery (laparoscopic ovary drilling) [8]. Hirsutism and acne treatment: Other than hair removal techniques (waxing, shaving, plucking, laser removal), some drugs maybe prescribed to control excessive hair growth. The most common are spironolactone, flutamide and other therapies including eflornithine. Hormonal contraceptives provide some relief from acne associated with PCOS and can be used along with standard topical acne therapy (e.g., retinoids, antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide) or can be used separately [7].

Sleep is a recurring state of mind and body in which the individual is in a state of altered consciousness. It is characterized by reduced muscle activity and inhibition of voluntary actions. We do not have a definitive answer as to why do we need sleep but that we do. We are all aware that we need to sleep at least once in 24 hours. The human body follows circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms refer to a 24-hour cycle of the human body. Sleep is an essential part of this cycle. Stages of Sleep Sleep cycles have different stages. These stages were detected using EEG (electroencephalogram). The stages of sleep are: Non-rapid eye movement Non-rapid eye movement sleep has 4 stages. Stage 0: This is the stage that occurs between lying down and falling asleep. It consists of 1-2% of the sleep cycle. Stage 1 or Dozing: Stage 1 is the transition period between wakefulness and sleep. It lasts for 5 to 15 minutes. Stage 2 or Unequivocal Sleep: This stage starts with the body temperature dropping and the heart rate slowing down. Stage 2 lasts for 20 minutes and people become less aware of their surroundings. Stage 3 or Deep Sleep Transition: Deepest sleep occurs in stage 3. The breathing rate and blood pressure drop along with the relaxation of muscles. Stage 4 or Cerebral Sleep: It is also called slow-wave sleep. Stage 4 amounts for 10-20% sleep. Its characteristics are similar to stage 3. Studies suggest night terrors occur in this stage of sleep. Rapid Eye Movement This stage is also known as the paradoxical stage because in this the brain becomes more active while the rest of the body muscles become more relaxed. It is characterized by rapid eye movement and dreams. In a normal night’s sleep, the body undergoes 4-5 sleep cycles. All stages of the sleep cycle have benefits and a good sleep contains all of them. Functions of sleep Restoration: Sleep serves as the restoration period of the body. The human body utilises the sleep cycle to remove metabolic waste products and reduce damaging components such as reactive oxygen species which are needed when the individual is awake. Memory Processing: It is accepted by a majority of experts that sleep is essential in long term processing and recalling experiences. Dreaming: Many experts have argued that dreams are an essential component of our lives. The contents of dreams are often linked with the mental health of a human being. How much sleep do we need? The amount of sleep required for effective functioning can vary among individuals. However, according to the National Sleep Foundation’s sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary, the required sleep according to the age group is: AgeSleep NeedsNewborns (0-3 months)14-17 hoursInfants (4-11 months)12-15 hoursToddlers (1-2 years) 11-14 hoursPreschoolers (3-4 years)10-13 hoursSchool-age Children (5-12 years)9-11 hoursTeenagers (13-17 years)8-10 hoursAdults (18-64 years)7-9 hoursOlder Adults (65+ years)7-8 hours Credits: Pexels Caption: Infants require more sleep than adults. Sleep Disorders: A group of conditions that affect the sleeping pattern of an individual are known as sleep disorders. The International classification of sleep disorders classifies them into the following categories: Insomnia: The inability of falling asleep or sustaining sleep is called insomnia. Insomnia is caused by the following conditions: Stress Chronic illnesses Exhaustive Work Schedule Medications Caffeine, Nicotine Alcohol Credits: Pexels Captions: Drinks that contain caffeine can cause insomnia. Treatment of Insomnia: The treatment of insomnia focusses on inducing sleep. Various therapies such as stimulus control therapy and light control therapy can be used to induce sleep. The following medications are widely used to induce sleep in patients suffering from insomnia: Temazepam Triazolam Zaleplon Zolpidem Sleep Related Breathing Disorders These are the disorders that cause difficulty in breathing while an individual is asleep. The common sleep related breathing disorders are: Central Sleep Apnea: This condition occurs when the brain does not send a signal to the muscles to take a breath. Obstructive Sleep Apnea: This occurs when the airway through which muscles take a breath is obstructed while sleeping. Treatment for Sleep Related Breathing Disorders: ‘The treatment focuses on ensuring that the airway remains open. The following devices and surgical treatments are used: Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Device Bilevel Positive Airway Pressure Device Tissue removal Jaw Repositioning Tissue Shrinkage Hypersomnia Excessive sleepiness that interferes with day time activities is called hypersomnia. It is characterized by loss of productivity and excessive tiredness. The causes of hypersomnia are Alcohol and Drug Abuse Head Injury Lack of sleep Depression Narcolepsy Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder that causes uncontrollable daytime sleepiness. The patient can suddenly fall asleep during any activity. The cause behind Narcolepsy is not known. The treatment for hypersomnia includes the following medication: Antidepressants Sodium Oxybate Modafinil Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders These are the disorders that affect the circadian clock or the internal body clock. They are observed in the following individuals: Shift workers Travellers who travel across time zones Pregnant Women People with Alzheimer’s Menopausal Women Credits: Pexels Caption: Travelling between time zones can cause circadian rhythm sleep disorders. The treatment focuses on readjusting your body’s internal clock. Some methods to do that are: Chronotherapy Improving Sleep Hygiene Lifestyle Changes Bright Light Therapy Parasomnia Parasomnia is a sleep disorder in which the affected individual shows abnormal behaviour while sleeping. Abnormal behaviour could be talking or performing certain tasks. In parasomnia, the individual is unaware of the surroundings. This can result in self harming activities. It can be caused by depression, anxiety, stress and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Types of Parasomnia are: Sleep Walking Sleep Talking Sleep-related groaning Night Terrors Bedwetting Confusional arousal Sleep Related Eating Disorder Sleep Texting Sexsomnia Sleep Driving Medications for Parasomnia include Dopamine agonists Antidepressants Benzodiazepines Levodopa Sleep Related Movement Disorders Involuntary movements that occur during sleep. They are caused because of nervous system disorders. The most common sleep related movement disorders are: Restless Leg Syndrome Periodic Limb Movement Disorder The causes of these disorders are not known. Some individuals have shown improvement with drug treatments while the same drugs have made the conditions worse in others. Symptoms to Watch Out for Sleep disorders can have a harmful effect on your life. If you notice any of the following symptoms, you should consult a doctor. Sleepy during day time Difficulty in falling asleep Urges to move while sleeping Irregular sleep cycle. Performing activities while sleeping. Diagnosis of Sleep Disorders The diagnosis of sleep disorders is done by observing sleeping patterns in detail. The following methods are used: Polysomnography: A full sleep study in which qualified medical professionals observe people in their sleep. Multiple Sleep Latency Test: This measures the daytime sleepiness of an individual Epworth Sleepiness Scale: It is a questionnaire that asks questions about an individual’s sleeping pattern. Tips to Help you Sleep Better There are times when it is difficult to fall asleep even if you are not suffering from a disorder. These tips can help you fall asleep. They can also be used by people suffering from insomnia. Maintaining a Proper Sleep Cycle: Setting a time to wake up and a time to go to sleep can be your 1st step in improving your sleep cycle. The waking up time should be strictly followed and your body will try to adapt. Credits: Pexels Caption: Waking up at the same time every day is essential for maintaining your sleep cycle. Eating Before Bed: Avoid having a meal or drinking anything right before you go to bed. A buffer of 1 hour should be there. Reduce Stress: Stress is one of the primary causes of insomnia. Workout: Regular exercise helps in improving your sleep cycle. Avoid Alcohol and Stimulants: Alcohol and stimulants such as caffeine can have harmful effects on your sleep cycle and should be avoided. Takeaway A proper sleep cycle is essential for a healthy human being. Sleeping the right amount of time is important to ensure health and productivity. If you have trouble sleeping or you observe any of the above-mentioned symptoms then you should see a doctor. Sleep disorders have many treatment options. Lifestyle changes can also help in improving your sleep cycle depending on their cause.

Muscle soreness is the discomfort and pain felt in various parts of the body due to excessive strain on the muscles. This excessive strain has many causes. It is a very common phenomenon and some athletes believe that their workout is not complete without muscle soreness. However, it is can be very painful and affect your day to day activities. Types of Muscle Soreness Mild Muscle Soreness This is mild and is usually experienced after an extensive workout. It can last for up to 3 days. This is the soreness that athletes link with muscle development. It does not require medical intervention. Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness This is muscle soreness which is felt 2-3 days after being triggered. This soreness results in inhibiting muscle contraction which can result in severe discomfort. It is caused due to excessive workout which damages the muscles. It can last for up to two weeks. Injury-Type Muscle Soreness This is the result of an injury. It is a sharp pain and occurs when the injury is caused. This can be varying depending upon the type of injury. It requires medical attention to treat the injury. Causes of Muscle Soreness Workout Excessive workout and using wrong techniques can result in muscle soreness. Adapting new workouts and pushing limits is the most common cause of muscle pain and soreness. Credits: Pixabay Caption: A weightlifter lifting a very big load. Nutritional Deficit Lack of nutrition significantly weakens the muscles and makes them more prone to soreness. Sleep Deficiency Proper sleep is an essential component of workouts. If sleep is not proper than the muscles do not have enough time to recover. This results in the development of soreness. Exhaustion Overdoing any kind of physical activity results in soreness. This applies to workouts as well all day-to-day activities. Stress Stress has been linked with muscle soreness. It can cause significant discomfort and requires treatment of stress Dehydration Dehydration can cause fatigue and muscle soreness. In some cases, sportspersons have been affected by dehydration and resulted in having muscle soreness. Medication There are various medications whose side effects include muscle soreness. Some of them are: ACE Inhibitors Statins Diseases There are various diseases that can cause muscle soreness. If you have been diagnosed with any of the following, inform your doctor regarding the muscle soreness. Some of them are: Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism Fibromyalgia Infections such as the Flu Autoimmune Disorders Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Polio Bacterial Infections Hypokalemia Arthritis Lyme Disease Pneumonia Symptoms to Watch Out for If muscle soreness is accompanied by the following symptoms than they could have an underlying cause and you should seek medical help immediately. Difficulty in Breathing Rashes Dizziness Loss of Movement Swelling Bite Mark Pulsating Pain Fever If the pain lasts for more than 10 days or has any other symptoms than seek medical help. Treatment of Muscle Soreness The treatment strategy of muscle soreness is based on the intensity of pain, the duration, and the site of pain. ‘Site of pain’ means where you are feeling the pain. Back and Neck Pain: Back and neck pain are among the most common types of muscle soreness. They can be caused by heavy weightlifting. The primary back relievers are Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs). These are pain killers and are preferred because of their easy access and quick action. Exercises and Physiotherapy can also significantly help in reducing back and neck pain. Muscle relaxers for back pain have shown significant results in patients suffering from chronic pain. But they are prescription medications and should only be taken when prescribed by a doctor. Muscle relaxers for back pain are supplemented with other forms of treatment and are only given for short durations. Some of the commonly used muscle relaxers for back pain are: Baclofen Benzodiazepines Dantroline Cyclobenzaprine Body Pain, Headache and Fever: In the case of body pain, headache and fever drugs like Paracetamol are preferred. Paracetamol is an analgesic and an Antipyretic which means it is a pain killer and reduces fever. Rest and avoiding extensive physical activity are advised when suffering from body pain, headache, and fever together. Others: Muscle soreness in other parts of the body is treated with Acetaminophens, NSAID’s and other pain killers. In case the muscle soreness is due to diseases, injuries, medications or other underlying causes, then the pharmacological treatments address the cause. Non-Pharmacological Treatment Anti-Inflammatory Foods Eating foods which have anti-inflammatory action can be a sore muscles cure. There are studies that show that these can significantly help in reducing muscle soreness. Some of the foods are: Pineapple Ginger Cherry Juice Credits: Pixabay Caption: Pineapples can be help treat muscle soreness. Cold Therapy Using ice packs or ice wrapped in a cloth can offer immediate relief for soreness. Cold therapy is applied for short periods of 15-30 minutes at the site of pain. Chiropractic Treatment Chiropractic is a healthcare profession. In this, the goal is to correct alignment problems by performing adjustments. Chiropractic is used primarily as a back-pain reliever. Antioxidants Antioxidants are substances that inhibit oxidation and have shown promise in treating sore muscles. They help in reducing recovery time. Some antioxidants which can be taken are: Turmeric Fish Oil Omega 3 Fatty Acid Prevention of Muscle Soreness There are various activities which can help in preventing muscle soreness. Correct Workout Following the correct workout plan which does not cause damage to muscles is very important. Resting between workouts and using the right technique help in avoiding muscle sores. Hydration Proper hydration improves muscle function. Rehydrate after every workout. Credits: Pexels Caption: A task as simple as drinking water can prevent muscle soreness. Maintain proper Nutrition Maintaining proper nutrition boosts muscles working capacity. Proper nutrition significantly helps muscles in recovering quickly after workouts. Warmups There is a wide debate on whether warm-ups help with muscle soreness. Some people consider them an essential part of a workout while others argue their benefits. There are studies that show that warm-ups and stretching can reduce the risk of muscle soreness and help with reducing the recovery time as well. Warm-ups can be tried to prevent muscle soreness. Takeaway Muscle soreness can be a regular part of your workout as well as an indication of a serious underlying condition. If you are suffering from muscle soreness, note the duration and any other symptoms that accompany it. If it lasts for more than 10 days consult a doctor. In mild cases, muscle soreness cure can be found at home but in severe cases seek medical attention.

Migraine is a neurological illness that is often accompanied with several associated symptoms. It’s usually characterized by intense, tiring headaches. A migraine can last anywhere between a few hours to 3 days. In severe cases, it may last even longer. Its symptoms include vomiting, nausea, numbness or tingling, difficulty speaking, and sensitivity to sound and light. Migraines can affect all ages and often run in families. The diagnosis of migraine is decided based on reported symptoms, clinical history, and by eliminating other causes. The most typical categories of migraine include those without aura (common migraines) and those with aura (classic migraines). Migraines can start from childhood or may not occur until initial adulthood. Women usually experience more migraine symptoms than men. Family history is a common risk factor for having migraines. Migraines are usually different from common headaches. What are the Symptoms of a Migraine? Migraine symptoms can start one or two days before the headache itself. This is called the prodrome stage. Symptoms during this stage are: food cravings depression fatigue or low energy frequent yawning hyperactivity irritability neck stiffness In migraine with aura, the aura occurs after this stage. During an aura, you can experience problems with your sensation, vision, movement, and speech. Examples of these problems include: difficulty speaking clearly feeling a tingling or prickling sensation in your arms, face, or legs seeing light flashes, shapes, or bright spots temporary loss of vision The next stage is called the attack stage. This is the most severe or acute stage when the actual migraine pain begins. For some people, this may overlap or occur during an aura. Attack stage symptoms can range between hours to days. They can vary from person to person. Some symptoms include: increased sensitivity to sound and light nausea feeling faint or dizziness throbbing and pulsing head pain vomiting After the attack stage, a person will usually experience the postdrome stage. In this stage, there occur changes in mood and feelings. These may range from feeling very fatigued and apathetic to feeling euphoric and extremely happy. A dull, mild headache may persist. The intensity and length of these stages may occur to different degrees in different people. At times, a stage is skipped and a migraine attack occurs without causing a headache. What Causes Migraines? Scientists haven’t found a definitive cause for migraines. But they have found a few contributing factors that can trigger the illness. This consists of fluctuations in brain chemicals, such as a decrease in levels of serotonin, a brain chemical. Caption: An extremely hot day in Holland Credits: Commons wikimedia Other factors that may cause migraine are: bright lights extreme weather conditions dehydration changes in barometric pressure hormone changes in women excess stress loud sounds intense physical activity skipping meals changes in sleep patterns use of certain medications, such as nitroglycerin or oral contraceptives unusual smells certain food items smoking alcohol use travelling What are the Types of Migraine? There are several types of migraines. Two of the most typical types are migraine with aura and migraine without aura. Some people may have both types. Migraine Without Aura This type of migraine is also called common migraine. Most people with migraine don’t contact an aura. Usually, individuals who have migraine without aura experience at least five attacks that have these traits: Headache attacks typically last from 4 to 72 hours if not treated. The headache has two or more of these features: occurs only on one side of the head throbbing or pulsating pain moderate or severe pain pain getting worse when you move Headache has at least one of these features: sensitivity to light (photophobia) sensitivity to sound (phonophobia) nausea with or without diarrhoea or vomiting Migraine with Aura Caption: A zig-zag visual disturbance that one having migraine with aura experiences. Credits: Commons wikimedia This type of migraine is also called classic migraine, hemiplegic migraine or complicated migraine. It usually occurs in 25 percent of people who have migraines. Usually, individuals who have migraine with aura experience at least two attacks that have these traits: The aura that goes away is fully reversible, and has at least one of these features: visual difficulties sensory difficulties of the face, body, or tongue, such as tingling, numbness, or dizziness language or speech difficulties difficulties moving brainstem traits, which are: difficulties talking vertigo (a spinning feeling) ringing in the ears or tinnitus hyperacusis (difficulties hearing) diplopia (double vision) inability to control body movements decreased consciousness eye problems, like blind spots, flashes of light, or temporary blindness. The aura that has at least two of these features: One or more symptoms spread gradually over a few minutes each symptom lasting between five to sixty minutes one or more symptom where the aura is only on one side of the head, including speech, vision, or language difficulty aura occurs before the headache begins or with the headache Headache which is not due to another health problem and transient ischemic attack not being a cause. An aura typically occurs before the headache pain starts; however, it may continue once the headache starts. It can also start at the same time as the headache does. Vestibular migraine Vestibular migraine is also called migraine-related vertigo. Almost 40 per cent of those who have migraines have few vestibular symptoms. These symptoms can cause dizziness, affect balance, or both. People of any age, including children, can have vestibular migraines. Neurologists usually treat people who have problems managing their migraines, including vestibular migraines. Medications for vestibular migraine are similar to the ones used for other types of migraine. Also, vestibular migraines are sensitive to food items that cause migraines. Thus, you may be able to ease or prevent vertigo and other symptoms by changing your diet. Your doctor may suggest you see a vestibular rehabilitation therapist. They teach exercises to help you stay balanced when your symptoms are at their worst. Migraines in Children Usually, children may have the same type of migraines as adults. Children and teenagers, like adults, may also experience anxiety and depression disorders together with their migraines. Until they’re teenagers, children are likely to experience symptoms on both sides of the head. However, it’s rare for them to have headache pain in the back of the head. Their migraines usually last from 2 to 72 hours. Some migraine variants are more common in children. These are abdominal migraine, cyclic vomiting and benign paroxysmal vertigo. Abdominal Migraine Children with abdominal migraine can experience stomach ache instead of a headache. The pain can be severe or moderate. Usually, it is in the stomach, around the belly button. However, the pain may not be confined to this specific area. The stomach may just feel sore. Your child can also experience a headache. Other symptoms are: lack of appetite nausea with or without vomiting sensitivity to sound or light Children who experience abdominal migraine are most likely to have more common migraine symptoms as adults. Migraine Treatment Migraines can’t be completely cured; however, you can take steps to manage them so that you don’t get them often and treat symptoms when they occur. Treatment can help make migraines less severe. Your treatment method depends on: your age frequency of migraines type of migraine how severe it is, based on how much pain you have, how long they last, and how often they keep you from working whether you have nausea or vomiting, including other symptoms other medications you may take and other health conditions you have Your treatment method can include a combination of: self-care migraine methods lifestyle changes, like stress management and preventing migraine triggers OTC pain or migraine medications, like acetaminophen (Tylenol) or NSAIDs prescription migraine medications for every day to reduce how often you have headaches and help prevent migraines prescription migraine medications that you take when a headache begins, to ease symptoms and to prevent it from becoming severe prescription medications to avoid vomiting or nausea hormone therapy if migraines occur with your menstrual cycle counselling alternative care, like meditation, biofeedback, acupuncture or acupressure Medications for relief Caption: A picture illustrating migraine headache pain relievers Credits: Pixabay Medications that are used to ease migraine pain work best when taken at the initial stage of migraine as soon as symptoms and signs of a migraine starts. Medications that may be used to treat it are: · Pain relievers They are prescription or over-the-counter pain relievers like ibuprofen (Motrin IB, Advil) or aspirin. If taken for a long time, they can cause medication-overuse headaches, and possibly bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract and ulcers. Migraine pain relievers like acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine (like Excedrin Migraine) can be helpful against mild migraine pain. · Triptans They are prescription drugs like rizatriptan (Maxalt) and sumatriptan (Tosymra, Imitrex). It is used against migraine because it blocks the pain pathways in the brain. They are usually taken as shots, pills, or nasal sprays, and can ease several symptoms of migraine. However, they might not be safe for those at risk of a heart attack or stroke. · Dihydroergotamines (Migranal or D.H.E. 45) They are usually available as an injection or nasal sprays and are most effective when taken shortly after the migraine symptoms begin and tend to last longer than 1 day. Its side effects may include worsening of migraine-related nausea and vomiting. People with high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, or liver or kidney disease should avoid dihydroergotamine. · Lasmiditan (Reyvow) This is a new oral tablet which is approved for the treatment of migraine without or with aura. In drug trials, lasmiditan drastically improved nausea, pain, and sensitivity to sound and light. However, lasmiditan can have a sedative effect and may cause dizziness, thus people taking it are advised not to operate machinery or drive for a minimum of eight hours. It should also not be taken with other drugs or alcohol that affect the central nervous system. · Ubrogepant (Ubrelvy) Ubrogepant is approved for the treatment of acute migraine of all types in adults. It acts against oral calcitonin gene-associated peptide receptor. It’s the first drug of this type to be approved for migraine treatment. In drug trials, ubrogepant was more productive than placebo in easing pain and other migraine symptoms like sensitivity to light and sound and nausea, two hours after taking it. Typical side effects experienced are nausea, dry mouth, and excessive sleepiness. Ubrogepant shouldn’t be taken with strong CYP3A4 inhibitor drugs. · Opioid medications Narcotic opioid medications, especially those that consist of codeine can help people who have migraines but can’t take other migraine medications. As they are highly addictive, they are usually used only if no other medications are effective. · Anti-nausea drugs Anti-nausea drugs may help if your migraine with aura is accompanied by vomiting and nausea. They include metoclopramide (Reglan), chlorpromazine, or prochlorperazine (Compro). These drugs are usually taken with pain medications. Excedrin Migraine Caption: A bottle of Excedrin’s migraine formula Credits: Commons wikimedia Excedrin Migraine is a prescription-based pain relief medication. It’s usually used to treat pain caused by migraine headaches. Excedrin Migraine is a combination of medication. It consists of three different drugs namely aspirin, acetaminophen, and caffeine. These three drugs work in separate ways to help ease your migraine pain. Forms and Dosage Excedrin Migraine is usually taken by mouth as a caplet. Each caplet consists of 250 mg aspirin, 250 mg acetaminophen, and 65 mg caffeine. The suggested dosage is listed below by age. You can also find this dosage details on the product’s packaging. Adults 18 years and older They are advised to take two caplets with a glass of water. Also, the maximum dosage is two caplets in 24 hours. Children and teens (below 18 years) Excedrin Migraine contains aspirin; thus, you should be very careful when giving it to children and teenagers. This is because aspirin is related to Reye’s syndrome, a rare yet serious illness. Never provide medications that contain aspirin to a child below 12 years of age. Also, don’t give aspirin to a teenager if they’re recovering from a viral illness like flu or chickenpox. Always consult with your child’s doctor before giving your child Excedrin Migraine. Conclusion Migraine can be debilitating, severe, and uncomfortable. Multiple treatment options are available, thus be patient while finding the one that’s best for you. Also, keep track of your symptoms and headaches to identify migraine causes. Knowing how to avoid migraines is often the initial step in handling them. It’s crucial to seek immediate medical attention if you or a loved one has a headache. Schedule an appointment to visit your doctor if your headaches start to affect your daily life. Tell them if you have pain around your ears or eyes, or if you experience multiple headaches that last for several hours or days.

We’re all capable of executing unusual behaviours and thinking unusual thoughts from time to time. That is normal. However, in some people, such behaviours and thoughts are more frequent than others. Such people are often diagnosed with a mental disorder. The disorders which affect the cognitive, emotional and behavioural wellbeing of a person are known as mental health disorders. Apart from behaviours and thoughts, mental disorders can also affect one’s perception and relationships. The most common mental health disorders are: Anxiety Disorders OCD PTSD Panic Disorder Social Anxiety Disorder ADHD Personality disorders PTSD Schizophrenia All of the above mention disorders are manageable. Let’s briefly discuss how these disorders affect a person before discussing their management. Anxiety Disorders The most common anxiety disorder is Generalized anxiety disorder. You may have noticed how some people around you worry more and get tensed easily. These people may be suffering from chronic anxiety, also known as generalised anxiety disorder or GAD. Causes of GAD: It may be hereditary It may be a consequence of a having been in a highly stressful situation recently such as a divorce or the passing of a loved one. Childhood trauma Substance abuse of excessive smoking and/or coffee drinking. Other anxiety disorders include obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Panic disorder and social anxiety disorder. OCD Uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts and/or repetitive behaviours. These behaviours often include cleaning rituals and arranging things in a particular manner. Think of someone who cleans their room 5 times a day or has to make sure that labels of the bottles kept in their fridge are facing outwards. PTSD PTSD is what a person goes through after coming out of a highly stressful situation. Soldiers of war often suffer from this. Other examples of people who suffer from PTSD include people who were assaulted, threatened for their life or witnessed someone else being assaulted. Panic Disorder If someone has repeated episodes of experiencing unusually high degrees of fear, they may have panic disorder. To make matters worse, the said fear may be accompanied by physical symptoms including chest pain, an elevated heartbeat, breathlessness, or stomach cramps. Social Anxiety Disorder As we all know, some people do better in social situations than others. But some of us get so overwhelmed when we even the most everyday social situations that it’s no less than a disorder. In the most extreme cases, one cannot even take to or other people or eat food in their presence. Anxiety Attacks A sudden overwhelming occurrence of symptoms of anxiety is known as an anxiety attack. It is usually triggered by an external fear. An anxiety attack is an extension of existing anxiety disorders. Symptoms of Anxiety Disorders Fear Uncontrollable worrying Numbness in body parts Chills Breathing difficulty Sweating Treatment of Anxiety Disorders Cognitive Behavioural Therapy It is a form of psycho-social intervention which focusses on changing the attitude and behaviour of the individual. Antianxiety Drugs Diazepam, Alprazolam, and buspirone are the most commonly used drugs. Some other antidepressant drugs are also prescribed for anxiety disorders. ADHD ADHD stands for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. It is more common and problematic among children. This is especially true because the symptoms of ADHD vary and can be hard to recognize. Children and Adults with ADHD have trouble focusing and can execute behaviours that affect their relationships with other people. Also, they may experience more emotional turmoil and physical fatigue than others. Symptoms of ADHD in Adults Lack of Motivation and Focus Restlessness Poor Time management and organisational skills Poor self-worth Proclivity for substance abuse Poor personal relationships Symptoms of ADHD in kids Not finishing tasks regularly Finding it hard to remain quiet Speaking out of line Frequent temper tantrums Lack of focus and leaving tasks unfinished ADHD Rating Scale An ADHD rating scale is a system in which the patients are scored using specially designed questionnaires. ADHD rating scales are helpful for the doctor to understand the severity of the condition. The questions focus on behavioural aspects of the patient but can vary depending upon the caregiver. They are also used to measure treatment responses. Some common ADHD rating scales are: Swanson Nolan and Pelham (SNAP) The diagnostic Interview for ADHD in Adults Clinical Global Impression of Improvement Brown Attention-Deficit Disorder Scale ADHD Treatment The treatment for ADHD involves two kinds of medications. These medications cannot cure ADHD but these can help in managing the disease. Central Nervous System Stimulants Amphetamines, Dextroamphetamine, and methylphenidates are used. These drugs increase the amount of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain. Non-stimulant Drugs The mechanism of action of these drugs is not known. However, they have shown positive outcomes. Clonidine and Guanfacine are the most used drugs. Depression Depression is a mood disorder. It is very common and something that everyone goes through to a certain degree at some point in their life. To put it in simple words, depression is the unshakable and relentless feeling of a sense of loss, sadness or loneliness. Unfortunately, some studies suggest that India is the most depressed country in the world. Symptoms of Depression Irritability Worthlessness Suicidal thoughts Alterations in sleep pattern Changes in weight Fatigue and loss of energy Mood Swings Treatment of Depression The treatment of depression involves pharmacological intervention as well as non-pharmacological intervention. Pharmacological intervention includes the following medications: Tri Cyclic Antidepressant: Amitriptyline, Imipramine Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors: Citalopram, Paroxetine Selective Serotonin and Norepinephrine Inhibitor: Duloxetine, Tramadol Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor: Isocarboxazid, Phenelzine Non-Pharmacological intervention focusses on activities which can help the patient psychologically. Placebo Effect This refers to a treatment in which medication which is given to the patient does not have any pharmacological activity. The purpose is to make the patient believe that he has been given medication. Lifestyle Changes Physical activity and improving sleeping patterns have been shown promising results. Stress Management Activities Stress Management activities are those which can reduce the stress of an individual. These activities can vary from person to person and have a wide range to choose from. These include psychotherapy, deep breathing, visualisation techniques. Credits: Pexels Caption: Meditation can be very helpful in reducing stress. Bipolar Disorder It is a condition in which extreme shifts in moods are observed. The sufferer can feel depression, mania and hypomania. It is a common condition. The famous Bollywood singer Honey Singh suffers from bipolar disorder. It is mainly characterized by severe mood swings which range from a depressive state to a manic one. There are 3 major types: Type 1 Bipolar Disorder In this disorder at least 1 manic episode is observed in the patient. The manic episode can also be followed by a depressive or hypomanic episode. Type 2 Bipolar Disorder The patents who suffer from this disorder have depressive episodes that have a minimum duration of two weeks which are followed by hypomanic episodes which last for a comparatively shorter duration. Cyclothymia Patients suffering from cyclothymia have shorter episodes of hypomania and depression as compared to other bipolar disorders. They are less severe and usually last for a few days. Treatment of Bipolar Disorder The treatment of bipolar disorder involves a combination of drugs. These medications have serious side effects and should be used carefully. Antipsychotic Drugs: Aripiprazole, Asenapine Mood Stabilising Drugs: Lithium Carbonate, Valproic Acid Credits: Pexels Caption: Bipolar disorder is characterized with severe depressive episodes. Schizophrenia A serious mental disorder in which a person’s ability to think, feel and behave is severely diminished. Lifelong treatment is required to manage this disease. In most cases, patients require constant supervision and care. The cause of schizophrenia is not known. Although, it is widely believed that genetic factors play a role. The symptoms of schizophrenia vary among individuals, but the most prevalent symptoms are: Delusions Disorganized Speech Impaired Thinking Ability, Abnormal Motor Behaviour Lack of Ability to Function There is no cure for Schizophrenia now, but certain drugs and therapies can help in managing the diseases. The following drugs and therapies are used: Electroconvulsive Therapy Psychological Therapy Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Psychotherapy Antipsychotic Drugs Personality Disorders These are serious mental health disorders in which the behaviour and thinking of an individual are deemed unhealthy and inflexible. Personality disorders vary from mild to severe. The most common time for personality disorders to emerge is between the ages of 12-19. However, they can emerge at other ages as well. Types of Personality Disorders Personality Disorders are classified into 3 categories: Cluster A: Eccentric and Suspicious These involve behaviour which seems suspicious or eccentric to others. The following are Cluster A personality disorders: Schizoid Personality Disorder Paranoid Personality Disorder Schizotypal Personality Disorder Cluster B Emotional and Impulsive The patients show erratic and emotional behaviour. Some cluster B personality disorders are: Antisocial Personality Disorder Histrionic Personality Disorder Borderline Personality Disorder Narcissistic Personality Disorder Cluster C: Fear and Anxiety In these disorders, fear and anxiety persist among individuals. Cluster C includes: Avoidant Personality Disorder Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder Dependent Personality Disorder Treatment of Personality Disorders There are no specific drugs which are indicated to be used for personality disorders. However, drugs which are used in other mental disorders have been helpful in personality disorders as well. Mental Health Act and Raising Awareness The Mental Health Act of 2017 was brought passed to protect individuals suffering from mental health disorders. It recognized various mental health disorders and ensured that the constitutional rights of the patients are protected. Its main objective is to ensure that no form of cruel or inhuman activities is done to mental health patients in health care facilities. Most people in India are unaware of mental health disorders. This lack of awareness results in people not identifying the need for treatment and often stigmatising mental health disorders. Credits: Pexels Caption: We need to raise awareness regarding mental health. Takeaway Mental health disorders are serious medical conditions that require treatment. If you feel any symptoms of these disorders you should consult a doctor. Mental health disorders impair the mental ability of an individual which can result in various harmful activities. Raising awareness and destigmatising mental health disorders would be beneficial for those who are suffering from it/

Menstrual health is a broad term and encompasses menstrual hygiene management practices and the interventions that link menstruation to health, well-being and gender education. Significance in India Before we learn more about menstruation, here’s a little note on why it is an important subject in India. Menstruation is still considered a taboo in some Indian societies. Due to this, a lot of people lack the basic knowledge of menstrual health. As a result, they are unable to educate their future generations. Millions of women face significant barriers and are denied a dignified and comfortable experience with menstrual hygiene management. It is important to create awareness and educate these women on reproductive health and create a platform where information is available to all. Menstruation It is a natural fact of life and a monthly occurrence. Every month, a woman’s body starts preparing for pregnancy, the Graafian follicle located in the ovary continues to mature and eventually ruptures to release the ovum during ovulation. If the released ovum is not fertilized once it reaches the uterus, menstruation occurs. During menstruation, the endometrium lining of the uterus starts degenerating and its blood vessels breakdown. It is then externally discharged in the form of blood and mucosal tissues known as “menstrual flow”. Some Important Terms Menarche: The onset of the first menstrual flow. It occurs around the age of 11-14 years. Menopause: The permanent cessation of the menstrual cycle. It occurs between the age of 45 and 50 years. Menstrual Cycle – The reproductive cycle of primates (monkeys, apes, human beings etc.) It is repeated at an average interval of 28-29 days and is divided into four phases: Menstrual phase- It marks the beginning of the cycle and is characterized by menstrual flow, when fertilization has failed. The duration of this phase is between 3-5 days. Follicular phase- This phase extends from the 6th day to the 13th day. During this phase, the primary follicle grows into the Graafian follicle and the endometrium of the uterine starts to regenerate. The level of estrogens is maximum. Ovulatory phase- On the 14th day of the menstrual cycle, the luteinizing hormone (LH) and the Follicular Stimulating hormone (FHS – maintains levels of estrogen) levels are at its peak. LH surge is the maximum level of LH during mid-cycle and its indices rupture of the Graafian follicle. Luteal phase- During this phase, the ruptured Graafian follicle enlarges and forms a yellow ball of mass called the corpus luteum. It continues to secrete progesterone for 7 days which is in turn controlled by LH. If the released ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans. The progesterone levels lower and the body enters the menstrual phase again. The Difference Between Menstrual Cycle and Estrous Cycle Menstrual cycle Estrous cycleIt occurs in primates such as apes, monkeys and human beings.It occurs in non-primates such as cows, dogs, reptiles etc.It is divided into four phases: menstrual, follicular, luteal and ovulatory.It is divided into two phases: Follicular and luteal.Blood flows during the menstrual phase as broken endometrium is discharged.Blood is not discharged during any phase as the degenerated endometrium is reabsorbed.There is no heat period and copulation occurs at any time.There is an estrus/heat production during ovulation and copulation occurs only at that period. Important Menstrual Hygiene Practices Avoid keeping the pad on for a long duration no matter how super-absorbent they are. Use of clean products- make sure all feminine products are properly sealed and unused to prevent any infection. Ensure proper disposal of sanitary products as it is harmful to both you and the people around you. Ensure your genital area is clean and dry. Wet or damp area are most prone to bacterial growth. Caption: Wash your hand after disposing of feminine products Credit: pexels Purpose of menstrual hygiene Reducing respiratory tract infection (RTIs): This is the most common form of infection in women of menstruating age. Avoid Unhygienic habits like using dirty cloths or sanitary napkins longer than 5 hours. This can promote growth of bacteria and yeast like E.coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Bacteria invade the urinary tract entirely and cause extreme pain during urination and may even cause fever. Ensuring good reproductive health: RTIs can lead to degeneration of the reproductive tract by microbes that destroy the mucosal layer, causing serious damage to the ovaries, fallopian tube and uterine wall. To avoid potential rashes: During menstruation the moisture level around the genital goes up. The combination of moisture and heat contributes to bacteria buildup and leads to contact dermatitis. The skin will then be more prone to friction and the area around the genital will now become itchy, sore and inflamed. Reducing risk of cervical cancer: This type of cancer causes malignant tumors on the lowermost part of the uterus known as the cervix. It is caused by the Human Papilloma Virus which is transmitted either sexually or due to unhygienic handling of menstruating waste. This is why it is important to ensure proper disposal of sanitary products and maintain proper sanitization afterwards. Cap: Tampons increase risk of TSS credits: pexel Toxic shock syndrome (TSS): A Rare but Serious Condition. The bacteria Staphylococcus aureus formed by bacterial build up during RTI often results in Toxic shock syndrome, a life-threatening complication. Women who wear tampons are at a higher risk. Women suffering from TSS will develop high fever, rapid drop in blood pressure, diarrhea and muscle aches. If not treated, a person’s organs such as liver and kidney may begin to fail or it could lead to seizures and heart failure. There have also been some few cases where amputations were involved. Menstrual Hygiene Products There are two most common types of menstrual products to absorb menstrual flow: External products such as pad and liners are attached to the underpants and absorb menstrual flow after it leaves the body. Internal products such as tampons and menstrual cups are inserted in the vaginal tract and absorbs menstrual flow before it leaves the body. Both types of products have been approved by the FDA. However, there is a small risk of Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) with tampons recorded. Caption: sanitary pads. Credit: pixabay The Impact of Menstrual Products on the Environment The pollution of sanitary waste has become a highly discussed topic. Over 400 million pads are manufactured in India annually. The chemical composition in sanitary pads causes leaching, groundwater pollution and loss of soil fertility. Moreover, there has been no clarification or distinct method of disposal as scientists are still trying to decide if it comes under the category of wet or dry waste. As awareness starts increasing in India, people have been actively promoting the idea of sustainable menstruation and the use of menstrual cups and its advantages are being popularized. Menstrual Cups Caption: Bell-shaped menstrual cup Credit: foter It is a bell-shaped, flexible device made of silicone, latex or rubber that is inserted into the vagina to collect menstrual blood. Depending on the type and size of the product, it can be left in place for 4-12 hours. The biggest advantage is that the cup can be simply removed, rinsed and then inserted again, making it the most sustainable and eco-friendly feminine product. Not only is this extremely convenient but also inexpensive. It has proven to be safe and just as effective as sanitary pads and tampons. How to Use It Firstly, picking the right sized menstrual cup for your body is important to ensure a painless and comfortable experience. The cup is designed to open up inside the vagina and create a small suction force with the vaginal wall to keep it in place. Before inserting it in, make sure you read the instructions that come with it. The easiest and most convenient way to insert it is to fold the cup in half, creating a U-shaped fold. Then guiding into the vagina, rim first. To ensure that it is well placed, rotate the stem of the cup when it is half an inch away from the opening to place it higher for maximum effectiveness. This will also ensure that the cup has completely opened inside the vaginal tract. Once it is correctly placed and suctioned, there will not be any discomfort or pain. Credits : foter Caption: Menstrual hygiene Maintenance- Cup Cleaning and Care Menstrual cup cleaning is easy and very low maintenance. With proper care, they can last for years. They must be cleaned and sterilized, both during your period and between cycles. Most brands ideally provide you with a specific soap for your cup but since they are non-porous materials, any soap will suffice. Fill the cup with soapy water and let it sit for some time. Although, keep in mind some perfume soaps can affect the vaginal ph. Then flip the cup over and squeeze the cup, let the soapy water escape through the suction hole to ensure proper cleansing. Use a soft brush if necessary. Once it’s rinsed and dried out, it’s as good as new. Alcohol-free and fragrance-free cleansing wipes are good alternatives and can be used in public places. Credits: picjumbo Caption: Menstrual cups are safe to sleep in Menstrual cups are a great alternative to wearing pads or using tampons. The maximum number of hours one can wear a menstrual cup is 12, while for pads and tampons it is 6 and 8 respectively. Further, those bulky maxi-night pads worn at night can get extremely uncomfortable due to friction. This problem can be easily resolved with the use of a menstrual cup. So, it is safe to say that not only is it a feasible alternative, but an advantage as menstrual cups can be worn for longer and are safer, especially during the night.

Knee pain can occur in anyone, irrespective of their age. It may be the result of an injury, such as a torn cartilage or ruptured ligament. Medical conditions like arthritis, gout, and other infections can also lead to knee pain. Several types of knee pain respond well to self-care measures. Knee braces and physical therapy can also help ease knee pain. In rare cases, your knee can require surgery. Chronic knee pain is long-term pain, sensitivity or swelling in the knees. Symptoms The severity and location of knee pain may vary, based on its cause. Symptoms that usually come with knee pain are: Stiffness and swelling Warm and red knee Instability or weakness Crunching or popping noises Inability to straighten the knee Fever Causes Knee pain can be caused by mechanical problems, injuries, and types of arthritis. Other factors include: Trauma Receiving a direct hit on the knee, falling from a height or a sudden change in direction, can cause knee injuries. Caption: Knee pain is often caused due to sports. Credits: Pixabay It can lead to: · Kneecap dislocation · Fracture of the femur, tibia or kneecap · Ligament tear · Torn meniscus Physical activities and accidents can put the knee under extreme strain. If the knee doesn’t heal properly, it can result in chronic pain. Obesity Excess weight and obesity are big contributors to chronic knee pain. Incidences of knee pain increased by 65 per cent in the United States between 1971 and 2004, according to a study published in 2011. Researchers say this is due to rising obesity levels. Gout Gout is a metabolic disorder. Gout causes a rise in uric acid crystals in the joints. This can lead to painful inflammation. It can also affect the knee movement. Degenerative tissue disorders Osteoarthritis is a chronic condition of the joints. It is caused by the wear and tear of the joints over time. Common symptoms are stiffness and pain after hours of rest. The knees can also become swollen after extended physical activity. Osteoporosis is another common disorder. Here, the bone becomes thinner, resulting in damage to the connecting tissues and cartilage in the knee. Bacterial infection Bacterial infections such as cellulitis can lead to sudden knee pain. Cellulitis arises when bacteria that are generally on the skin surface, develop underneath the skin’s protective surface. Without treatment, it can cause infection in the joints, leading to swelling, redness, stiffness and pain. It can also develop chronic knee pain over time. Auto-inflammatory causes Rheumatoid arthritis is a typical connective tissue disorder that causes knee pain. It is an auto-inflammatory condition, where the body’s immune system attacks its tissues. In the case of knee pain, it attacks the knee tissues. Its symptoms are joint inflammation, pain, fever, fatigue, and appetite loss. Knee Pain During Pregnancy During the nine months of pregnancy, you will gain weight. This can exert pressure on your joints, uterus, and ligaments leading to knee pain during early pregnancy and the first trimester. Caption: Weight gain during pregnancy can lead to knee pain. Credits: Pixabay Other causes include: · Hormonal changes In the third trimester, hormones are released to loosen up the pelvic tendons and ligaments. This can cause looseness in other tendons and ligaments like the knees. This can result in knee cramps during pregnancy. · Strain on veins Pregnancy can increase the pressure on the veins in your legs and knees, causing knee pain. · Excess work out Excessive exercise during pregnancy can lead to knee pain. Exercises such as squats are beneficial during pregnancy but can also weaken the knees. · Injury Knee pain can also be the result of an injury like a fall or strain. If you experience severe knee pain, then consult a doctor immediately as it can be a serious injury. · Excess standing or walking At times, knee pain can be the result of excessive standing or walking throughout the day. Your knees are made to carry the weight for extended periods that way and may develop pain. · Calcium deficiency Calcium deficiency in the bones makes them weak and may also lead to knee pain during pregnancy. · Changed point of gravity If you exercise or move a lot during pregnancy, your body changes its centre of gravity and puts the unbalanced pressure on your knees, causing pain. Home Remedies Knee pains will decrease after you have delivered your baby. However, until then, here are some home remedies to ease your discomfort: Try low impact exercises to strengthen the tissues in your knees. However, you will have to consult your doctor before you exercise during pregnancy. Wear strong-cushioned shoes. This will absorb shock and thus protect your knees. Sit with your feet held up, this gives quick pain relief as the weight is not on your legs. Try a knee brace. They support your tendons and ligaments if you particularly have swollen knees during pregnancy. Avoid overeating and gaining weight unnecessarily. It is common to put on 16 kgs during pregnancy. Maintain a good diet and do not indulge in junk food. This will help control your weight. It is one of the best ways to avoid knee pain during pregnancy. Take small doses of acetaminophen with your doctor’s consultation. Massage therapy can help ease joint stiffness and pain Use splints, especially in the feet and hands to provide relief Treatments Treatments for knee pain vary, depending upon its cause. Some of them are: Injections Yur doctor may suggest injecting medications directly into your knee joint. Examples are: · Corticosteroids Corticosteroid injections into your knee joint can help reduce the symptoms of an arthritis flare and can provide pain relief for a few months. However, these injections aren’t effective every time. · Hyaluronic acid Hyaluronic acid is a thick fluid, like the fluid that naturally lubricates joints. It can be injected into your knee to ease pain and improve mobility. Although there have been mixed results about the effectiveness of this method, relief from one or a series of shots can last up to six months. · Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) PRP has a concentration of multiple different growth factors that reduces inflammation and promotes healing. PRP injections usually work better in people whose knee pain is due to sprains, tendon tears, or injury. Surgery Caption: Arthroscopic surgery incisions in a knee joint following surgery. Credits: Commons wikimedia If you have knee damage that may require surgery, before making a decision, look at the pros and cons of both surgical reconstruction and nonsurgical rehabilitation. If you still require surgery, your options include: · Arthroscopic surgery Based on your injury type, your doctor will examine and repair your joint damage with a fibre-optic camera and long, narrow tools inserted through a few small incisions near your knee. Arthroscopy is used to either remove or repair damaged cartilage, remove loose parts from your knee joints, and reconstruct torn ligaments. · Partial knee replacement Here, your surgeon supplants only the most injured portion of your knee with parts made of plastic and metal. This surgery is usually performed through small incisions, thus you’re more likely to heal quicker than you are with total knee replacement surgery. · Total knee replacement Here, your surgeon removes the damaged cartilage and bone from your shinbone, thighbone, and kneecap, and replaces it with a false joint made of high-grade plastics, metal alloys, and polymers. Yoga for Knee Pain Several specific yoga poses can help provide relief for knee pain. People with knee pain can get relief by practising yoga a few times a week. Yoga is often placed among the best natural knee pain relief methods, alongside massage therapy and tai chi. Certain yoga poses like single-leg balances can improve leg strength and decrease knee adduction. While lunging and squatting postures can be stressful on the knees. Caption: Yoga can be a gamechanger for knee pain. Credits: USAR If you experience knee pain, it’s crucial to practice with awareness and stabilize the knees by rapidly contracting the muscles around them. It’s also beneficial to have an experienced yoga teacher to guide you.